Issued  April,  1913 


Yale  University 

YALE  FOREST  SCHOOL— Bulletin 


PROLONGING  THE  CUT  OF 
SOUTHERN  PINE 


PART  I.     POSSIBILITIES  OF  A  SECOND  CUT 

By  Herman  H.  Chapman,  Professor  of  Forest  Management 

PART  II.    CLOSE  UTILIZATION  OF  TIMBER 

By  Ralph  C.  Bryant,  Professor  of  Lumbering 


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New  Haven 

Yale  University  Press 

1913 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  YALE  FOREST  SCHOOL 


Catalogue. 

A  pamphlet  giving  a  list  of  the  faculty  and  students  and  describing 
the  courses  is  published  annually  in  November.  This  publication  also 
briefly  describes  the  equipment  of  the  School,  terms  of  admission, 
tuition  fees,  and  other  expenses.  It  is  mailed  free  to  any  address  on 
application. 

Bulletins  and  Memoirs. 

The  Yale  Forest  School  began  in  January,  1912,  the  publication 
of  a  series  of  Bulletins  and  Memoirs.  They  are  published  at  irregular 
intervals  and  are  distributed  at  a  fixed  price. 

Bulletin  I,  Classification  for  Forestry  Literature.     Price  10  cents. 

Bulletin  II,  Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine.     Price  25  cents. 

Miscellaneous  Publications. 

Report  of  the  Alumni  Reunion,  Yale  Forest  School.     Price  50  cents. 
Outline  for  a  Field  Study  of  a  Lumber  Operation.     Price  10  cents. 

In  Preparation. 

History  of  the  Yale  Forest  School,  with  Biographical  Record  of 
Classes  (1901-1912). 

Working  Plan  of  the  Forest  Property  of  the  New  Haven  Water 
Company. 

Communications  relating  to  publications  should  be  addressed  to  the 
YALE  FOREST  SCHOOL,  NEW  HAVEN,  CONN.  Checks  should 
be  made  out  in  favor  of  the  Yale  Forest  School.  Postage  stamps  will 
be  accepted  for  amounts  less  than  one  dollar. 


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This  book  was  presented  by 

Ralph  C.    Bryant 

L-v    - 

UBRARY 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  DATE 
INDICATED  BELOW  AND  IS  SUB- 
JECT TO  AN  OVERDUE  FINE  AS 
POSTED  AT  THE  CIRCULATION 
DESK. 


NOV  -5  1995'' 


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STUDENTS  OF  THE  YALE  FOREST  SCHOOL  CRUISING  TIMBER  IN  A  TEXAS  SHORTLEAF 
PINE  FOREST 


Issued  April,  1913 


Yale  University 

YALE  FOREST  SCHOOL— Bulletin 


PROLONGING  THE  CUT  OF 
SOUTHERN  PINE 


PART  I.     POSSIBILITIES  OF  A  SECOND  CUT 

By  Herman  H.  Chapman,  Professor  of  Forest  Management 

PART  II.     CLOSE  UTILIZATION  OF  TIMBER 

By  Ralph  C.  Bryant,  Professor  of  Lumbering 


New  Haven 

Yale  University  Press 

1913 


CONTENTS 


Part  I.     Possibilities  of  a  Second  Cut 

Page 

Introduction     1 

Present  policy  in  the  South 2 

Report  on  lands  in  Ashley  County,  Arkansas 3 

Mapping  the  tract   3 

Estimate  and  description 4 

Composition  of  the  forest 4 

Damage    5 

Age  classes    6 

Reproduction  of  pine 6 

Growth  of  pine 7 

Management  of  the  tract 9 

Agricultural  possibilities    9 

Securing  a  second  cut  of  pine    1 0 

Condition  of  the  cut-over  lands 10 

Proposed  plan  for  securing  a  better  second  cut 11 

Results  of  experimental  marking  for  a  second  cut  ....  11 

Necessity  of  marking  trees  to  be  cut 14 

Growth  in  thinned  stands    14 

Growth  in  virgin  stands    la 

Increase  in  value  of  second  cut 16 

Brush  disposal    17 

Financial  aspects    17 

Administration     19 

Sustained  production  of  timber 20 

Summary  of  recommendations 21 


Part  II.     Close  Utilization  of  Timber 

Introduction     23 

Stumps 23 

Breakage  of  boles  in  felling 25 

Crooked  trees    25 

Forked  trees    25 

Trimming  lengths  of  logs    27 

Selection  of  log  lengths 28 

Waste  in  the  top 29 

Suggestions    31 

Duties  of  the  saw  boss    31 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Plates 

Page 
Plate   I.     Students  of  the  Yale  Forest  School  cruising  timber 

in  a  Texas  shortleaf  pine  forest Frontispiece 

II.     Fig.    1. — Top  broken  from  falling  on  a  stump 33 

Fig.   2. — Very  crooked  log  ready  for  loading 33 

III.     Fig.   1. — Example    of    very    wasteful    cutting    of    a 

forked  tree    35 

Fig.   2. — Unnecessary  waste  in  log-making 35 

IV.     Fig.   1. — Section  below  the  top  shown  in  Plate  V   .  .        37 
Fig.   2. — Waste  in  a  top 37 

V.     Waste  in  the  top  of  the  tree  shown  in  Plate  IV,  Fig.  1        39 


Text  Figures 

Fig.   1.     Method  of  cutting  windfalls 24 

2.  Forked  tree  improperly  cut 26 

3.  Forked  trees  improperly  prepared 27 

4.  Proper  method  of  cutting  rough  tops    29 


TABLES 


Page 
Xo.   1.     Average  growth  in  diameter  breast  high  outside  bark  of 
shortleaf  and  loblolly  pine  in  Ashley  County,  Arkan- 
sas       7 

2.  Average  yield  per  acre  of  even-aged  stands  of  shortleaf 

pine  under  ordinary  conditions  on  large  areas  in  Ash- 
ley County,  Arkansas 8 

3.  Stand  of  timber  on  average  forty  acres  of  mature  and  old 

shortleaf  and  loblolly  pine  in  Ashley  County,  Arkan- 
sas, showing  total  number  of  trees,  those  to  be 
removed  and  those  that  would  remain 12 

4.  Stand  of  timber  on  average  forty  acres  of  mixed  young 

and  mature  shortleaf  and  loblolly  pine  in  Ashley 
County,  Arkansas,  showing  total  number  of  trees, 
those  to  be  removed,  and  those  that  would  remain  .  .         13 

5.  Amount  of  timber  in  stump  sections  of  various  diameters 

and  lengths,  showing  the  waste  in  high  stumps   ....        24 

6.  Measurements    on    cut-over    lands    in    Ashley    County, 

Arkansas,  showing  the  lack  of  close  utilization   ....        30 


Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine 


part  I 
possibilities  of  a  second  cut 

By  Herman  H.  Chapman 


INTRODUCTION 

Since  1907  the  Yale  Forest  School  has  conducted  the  field  work 
and  instruction  of  the  Senior  class  in  the  spring  term  in  coopera- 
tion with  lumber  companies  located  in  the  southern  states.  The 
companies  which  have  extended  this  cooperation  are: 

1907,  Missouri  Lumber  and  Mining  Co.,  Grandin,  Missouri. 

1908,  Kaul  Lumber  Co.,  Hollins,  Alabama. 

1909,  Thompson  Brothers  Lumber  Co.,  Doucette,  Texas. 

1910,  Louisiana  Central  Lumber  Co.,  Clarks,  Louisiana. 

1911,  Thompson  Brothers  Lumber  Co.,  Trinity,  Texas. 

1912,  Crossett  Lumber  Co.,  Crossett,  Arkansas. 

1913,  Southern  Lumber  Co.,  Warren,  Arkansas. 

In  no  case  has  there  been  a  formal  contract  between  the  com- 
pany and  the  School,  but  under  verbal  agreement  the  company 
has  allowed  the  students  the  freedom  of  its  mills  and  lands  for 
purposes  of  instruction,  built  temporary  wooden  shacks  for  quar- 
ters in  camp,  instructed  its  employees  to  give  such  information 
as  will  be  of  assistance  in  instruction  in  logging  and  milling,  and 
furnished  commissary  supplies  at  reasonable  prices.  The  stu- 
dents maintain  their  own  commissary  in  camp  and  pay  all  their 
own  expenses. 

The  work  is  conducted  primarily  with  the  object  of  instruction, 
but  a  large  amount  of  information  is  collected  and  given  to  the 
company.  This  consists  of  a  topographic  map,  an  estimate  and 
description  of  timber  and  young  growth,  data  on  the  growth  of 
the  timber,  suggestions  for  management  of  the  tract  for  the  pro- 
duction of  wood,  and  studies  of  present  utilization  and  waste  in 
logging.  It  has  been  possible  so  to  combine  training  and  practi- 
cal work  that  although  prepared  by  comparatively  inexperienced 
students,   the  data   and  maps  obtained  have   shown   a  creditable 


2       Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine 

degree  of  accuracy  and  have  in  most  instances  proved  of  con- 
siderable value  to  the  company. 

The  tract  studied  in  the  spring  of  1912  at  Crossett,  Arkansas, 
is  exceptionally  well  adapted  to  forest  growth,  and  illustrates  in 
a  striking  manner  the  possibility  which  presents  itself  to  lumber- 
men throughout  the  South  of  modifying  their  methods  of  logging 
so  as  to  get  a  second  cut.  During  the  six  years  of  investigation 
in  different  southern  states,  the  School  has  ascertained  that  prob- 
ably over  wide  areas  of  longleaf  and  shortleaf  pine  the  stand 
should  be  only  partially  removed  in  the  first  operation,  leaving  a 
fairly  large  percentage  for  a  second  cut  in  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
years.  If  properly  carried  out  this  policy  will  secure  a  satis- 
factory rate  of  interest  on  the  value  of  the  timber  left  standing. 
This  will  be  attained  by  rapid  growth  in  volume  and  advance  in 
stumpage  values.  Apparently  it  does  not  involve  great  expense 
at  the  present  time. 

PRESENT  POLICY  IN  THE  SOUTH 

The  present  policy  of  most  holders  of  stumpage  in  the  South 
is  clear  cutting,  which  is  followed  by  accidental  or  intentional 
broadcast  burning  of  the  slash,  and  sale  of  the  land  to  settlers 
or  land  companies ;  and  this  is  attempted  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
there  is  at  present  no  urgent  demand  for  much  of  this  pine  land 
and  that  these  timber  companies  still  have  ten  to  thirty  years' 
cut  in  sight. 

A  few  farsighted  firms  have  attempted  in  places  to  limit  the 
present  cut  to  a  certain  diameter,  reserving  the  small  trees  for 
a  future  crop.  This  is  a  move  in  the  right  direction,  yet  analysis 
shows  that  adherence  to  such  a  rigid  diameter  limit  does  not 
leave  the  most  vigorous  trees.  It  is  not  good  business  deliberately 
to  leave  an  investment  in  the  woods  and  secure  only  3  per  cent 
increase  when,  with  the  proper  supervision,  6  or  7  per  cent  might  be 
obtained  on  the  same  capital,  yet  that  is  just  what  is  being  done 
by  most  operators  who  are  planning  on  a  second  cut.  The  others 
are  neglecting  an  opportunity  to  prolong  their  business,  lessen 
their  annual  depreciation  charges,  and  secure  future  increase  in 
stumpage  values. 

Clear  cutting  may  be  justified  by  the  relative  inaccessibility  of 
the  tract,  making  it  unprofitable  to  return  for  a  small  second 
cut.  Again,  the  land  may  be  needed  at  once  for  agriculture, 
or  the  stumpage  may  be  purchased  without  the  land  and  require 
cutting  clear.  In  most  instances,  however,  this  practice  is  due  to 
lack  of  confidence  in  the  methods  demanded  and  absence  of  authori- 


Possibilities  of  a  Second  Cut  3 

tative  information  as  to  the  growth  and  financial  returns  obtain- 
able by  leaving  a  stand  for  later  removal. 

While  actual  demonstration  of  results  is  the  most  convincing 
argument,  it  requires  that  some  companies  make  the  attempt,  else 
the  time  will  come  when  there  will  no  longer  be  an  incentive  to 
existing  firms  to  cut  conservatively.  A  mill  with  twenty  years' 
cut  ahead  is  in  better  position  to  try  out  the  plan  than  one  with 
but  five  years  to  run.  Even  without  such  a  demonstration  it  is 
possible  to  predict  with  fair  accuracy  the  growth  that  will  occur 
after  cutting  and  to  outline  measures  which  will  assure  a  second 
crop. 

REPORT  ON  LANDS  IN  ASHLEY  COUNTY,  ARKANSAS 

The  report  of  the  Class  of  1912,  Yale  Forest  School,  to  the 
Crossett  Lumber  Company,  on  their  tract  in  Ashley  County, 
Arkansas,  is  presented  herewith.  This  report  deals  with  local  con- 
ditions. Previous  work  of  the  School  in  Louisiana  and  Texas  indi- 
cates that  similar  conclusions  may  be  drawn  for  the  better  and 
more  accessible  areas  of  longleaf  and  shortleaf  pine  throughout  the 
South. 

MAPPING  THE  TRACT 

The  area  covered  by  this  report  includes  approximately  27,000 
acres  lying  south  of  Crossett,  partly  in  Arkansas  and  partly  in 
Louisiana.  The  greatest  difference  in  elevation  is  about  150  feet 
and  the  country  is  either  flat  or  gently  rolling,  with  occasional 
abrupt  slopes.  Logging  roads  can  be  laid  out  with  little  regard 
to  topography.  This  greatly  lessens  the  value  of  a  topographic 
map,  but  for  purposes  of  instruction  one  was  prepared  on  a  scale 
of  2,000  feet  to  the  inch,  with  horizontal  contours  showing  5-foot 
differences  in  elevation.  Upon  this  map  streams,  dry  gulches 
and  roads  were  shown. 

The  timber  areas  were  plotted  on  the  map  in  distinctive  colors, 
according  to  character  of  stand.    The  stands  shown  are  as  follows : 

(a)  Mature  pine  timber  chiefly  of  large  size  with  insufficient 
young  timber  to  justify  a  second  cut. 

(b)  Pine  timber  of  all  ages  containing  enough  young  timber 
to  justify  a  second  cut. 

(c)  Brush  land  with  hardwoods  and  scattered  pine  averaging 
less  than  1,000  feet  b.m.  of  pine  per  acre. 

(d)  Cut-over  pine  land  with  practically  all  mature  pine 
removed. 


4  Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine 

(e)  Pine  in  old  abandoned  fields,  usually  a  dense  stand. 

(f)  Hardwood  lands,  usually  bottomland  with  little  pine. 

In  addition  to  the  areas  mentioned  above,  cleared  lands  under 
cultivation  or  in  pasture  are  shown. 

ESTIMATE  AND  DESCRIPTION 

A  timber  estimate  and  full  notes  on  the  stand  were  made  for 
the  area  covered  by  the  map.  The  work  was  done  by  the  students 
after  eight  days  of  training  in  timber  estimating,  and  allowances 
must  be  made  for  lack  of  experience  and  for  variation  in  individ- 
ual ability  of  the  men.  The  method  used  was  to  count  the  trees 
in  strips  on  half  the  area,  correcting  for  differences  in  the  stand 
where  the  timber  stood  unevenly  on  the  remainder.  One-third  of 
the  counted  trees  were  measured  by  eye  and  tally  kept  of  diameters 
and  of  the  number  of  logs  in  each  tree.  The  contents  of  these 
trees  in  board  feet  was  derived  from  a  table  prepared  from  300 
felled  trees  on  the  tract.  The  stand  on  each  "forty"  was  computed 
from  this  count  and  tally. 

A  percentage  was  deducted  for  loss  from  rot,  and  where  there 
was  damage  from  insects  or  windfall  it  was  stated  in  percentage 
of  the  standing  timber.  The  character  of  the  merchantable  tim- 
ber was  briefly  described  with  reference  to  the  size  of  the  logs, 
clear  length  and  percentage  of  grades  under  "uppers,"  "No.  1 
common,"  "No.  2  common,"  and  lower  grades,  thus  giving  some 
idea  of  the  relative  value  of  the  timber.  The  quantity  and  charac- 
ter of  small  or  immature  timber  was  noted,  including  its  size  and 
age  and  the  area  covered.  The  purpose  of  this  description  was  to 
record  the  conditions  on  each  "forty"  so  completely  that  no  further 
examination  would  be  necessary  for  any  purpose. 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  FOREST 

The  pine  timber  on  this  tract  is  composed  of  shortlcaf  and 
loblolly  pine  in  almost  equal  mixture.  This  fact  is  unimportant 
from  the  market  standpoint,  because  the  two  species  are  of 
practically  equal  value  and  not  easily  separated  when  manufac- 
tured into  lumber.  Loblolly  grows  almost  pure  on  the  lower 
flats  and  frequently  forms  pure  stands  on  abandoned  fields.  It 
gradually  gives  place  to  shortlcaf  on  drier  soils  and  on  the  driest 
the  shortlcaf  grows  pure. 

Pine  forms  almost  pure  stands  on  all  the  higher  lands.  It  has 
the  ability  to  resist  droughts,  which  are  frequent  and  severe 
during  the  growing  season,  the  months  of  April,  May  and  June. 


Possibilities  of  a  Second  Cut  5 

The  droughts  seriously  interfere  with  the  development  of  hard- 
woods on  these  soils  and  the  only  hardwood  growth  is  a  few  very 
stunted  and  deformed  oaks  from  which  some  timber  is  cut.  Better 
hardwoods,  including  white  and  black  oaks  and  some  sweet  gum 
and  hickory,  appear  near  streams  where  the  soil  is  fairly  well 
drained,  moist  and  deep.  The  true  hardwood  stands  occupy  the 
bottoms,  which  are  subject  to  overflow  and  where  there  is  com- 
paratively little  pine  reproduction.  These  lands  were  under  water 
in  the  spring  of  1912  during  the  unusual  floods  of  that  year  and 
were  not  examined. 

DAMAGE 

The  mature  pine  is  fairly  sound.  Old  stands  show  a  large 
amount  of  red  rot  and  a  lesser  amount  of  butt  rot,  although  the 
cull  seldom  exceeds  10  per  cent  of  the  volume  on  any  "forty"  and 
averages  less  than  3  per  cent. 

Fire  has  done  very  little  injury  to  the  timber.  A  small  percent- 
age of  the  trees  show  scarred  butts,  often  due  to  the  burning  out 
of  faces  chipped  off  to  test  the  grain  for  shingle  bolts.  Most  of 
the  timber  is  sound  at  the  base  and  escapes  injury  from  ordinary 
surface  fires. 

The  greatest  loss  to  the  timber  results  from  wind.  This  is 
due  to  the  soil,  which  in  many  sections  is  underlaid  with  hardpan 
from  two  to  five  feet  below  the  surface,  into  which  the  tap  root 
of  the  pine  cannot  penetrate.  In  consequence  the  tree  is  entirely 
dependent  on  the  spreading  lateral  roots  for  its  support.  In 
very  wet  seasons,  like  the  spring  of  1912,  the  soil  becomes  quite 
soft.  Often  a  heavy  wind  will  uproot  many  trees.  Some  sections 
are  more  subject  to  wind  damage  than  others  and,  through 
repeated  losses,  the  forest  there  has  assumed  a  clump-like,  many- 
aged  form.  This  condition  is  doubtless  due  to  the  presence  of 
hardpan  nearer  to  the  surface  than  on  the  tracts  showing  less 
windfall.  Tornadoes  are  very  rare,  although  there  have  been  one 
or  two  instances  of  very  heavy  loss  over  a  limited  area,  necessitat- 
ing immediate  logging.  More  often  scattered  single  trees,  includ- 
ing young,  small  poles  as  well  as  older  and  larger  timber,  will  go 
down  here  and  there.  Weak  roots  and  resulting  poor  anchorage, 
rather  than  undue  exposure  to  wind,  seem  to  determine  which  trees 
blow  over. 

Insect  damage  is  present  on  almost  all  sections  examined.  The 
bark-boring  pine  beetles  (Dendroctonus  sp.)  are  continually 
killing  trees,  both  among  the  old  timber  and  crowded  young  stands. 
Occasionally  5  per  cent  of  the  trees  may  be  killed  within  three  or 
four  years.      The   insects   first  attack  trees  which   are   sickly   or 


6       Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine 

weakened  and  those  tend  to  become  centers  of  infection.  If  con- 
ditions are  favorable,  the  insects  may  increase  very  rapidly  and 
destroy  the  pine  timber  over  wide  areas.  Under  ordinary  condi- 
tions their  natural  enemies,  such  as  woodpeckers,  keep  the  insects 
from  doing  excessive  damage.  Areas  badly  infested  with  beetles 
should  be  logged  as  soon  as  possible  in  order  to  lessen  the  danger 
of  the  beetles  spreading  to  adjacent  areas. 

AGE  CLASSES 

The  age  of  the  pine  timber  in  this  vicinity  rarely  exceeds  150 
years,  although  occasional  very  old  trees  may  reach  200  years. 
Much  of  it  is  approximately  even-aged,  but  seldom  continuous 
over  very  large  areas.  It  is  more  likely  to  be  broken  up  into 
different  age  classes,  clumps  of  large,  overmature  trees  being 
interspersed  among  groups  of  young  timber,  small  poles  or 
seedlings. 

On  much  of  the  pine  land  old  timber  occupies  the  soil  to  the 
exclusion  of  young  growth.  The  spread  of  the  roots  of  very 
large  trees  is  much  greater  than  that  of  their  crowns,  due  in  part 
to  the  great  demand  of  old  trees  for  moisture.  Owing  to  this 
wide  spread  of  the  roots,  old  stands,  even  when  fairly  open,  do  not 
contain  much  young  timber  until  the  old  trees  begin  to  disappear 
from  weakness  due  to  rot,  or  destruction  by  insects,  wind  or 
lightning.  The  final  form  of  such  a  stand  is  a  few  scattered  old 
trees  of  large  size  in  a  forest  of  young  timber  of  various  sizes 
and  ages. 

REPRODUCTION  OF  PINE 

Pine  seedlings  spring  up  readily  everywhere,  provided  the  seed 
reaches  mineral  soil.  Surface  fires  are  a  great  help  in  preparing 
a  suitable  seedbed.  Seeds  seldom,  if  ever,  germinate  on  pine  litter 
or  hardwood  leaves  and  not  readily  in  grass.  Abandoned  fields 
that  have  been  cultivated  afford  an  excellent  seedbed,  but  old 
pastures  reforest  very  slowly.  The  conditions  after  logging, 
where  the  ground  has  been  torn  up  by  skidding,  are  excellent  for 
pine  reproduction.  The  only  reason  there  are  not  more  seedlings 
in  the  forest  before  logging  is  that  they  cannot  live  under  the  old 
timber.  They  often  require  more  light  than  is  available,  but  the 
most  important  factor  is  the  soil  moisture.  The  seedlings  are 
killed  in  dry  seasons  by  the  old  trees,  which  deprive  them  of  mois- 
ture. Reproduction  on  cut-over  lands  is  either  destroyed  by  fire 
or  prevented  from  starting  through  lack  of  seed  trees. 


Possibilities  of  a  Second  Cut  7 

Old-field  stands  constitute  an  important  part  of  the  forest. 
Many  of  them  are  about  forty-five  years  old  and  already  large 
enough  to  cut.  These  stands  are  dense  with  sixty  to  eighty  trees 
per  acre,  and  the  timber  is  frequently  very  limby  because  it  has 
grown  on  open  fields  and  with  full  crown  development.  This  and 
the  rapid  growth  of  the  timber  reduce  the  quality  and  make  it  a 
poor  logging  proposition  compared  with  the  better  grades  and 
sizes  of  the  older  timber.  These  old-field  stands  will,  in  time, 
however,  yield  large  crops  of  timber  and  of  very  good  quality. 
A  large  percentage  of  the  trees  are,  through  crowding,  already 
cleared  of  branches  and  from  now  on  will,  if  thinned  out,  and 
the  remaining  trees  given  room  to  grow,  add  clear  material  at  a 
rapid  rate.  At  present  many  old-field  stands  are  so  densely 
stocked  that  the  trees  are  making  slower  growth  than  they  should. 

GROWTH  OF  PINE 

The  rate  of  growth  of  both  shortleaf  and  loblolly  pine  in  this 
locality  is  rapid;  it  exceeds  that  found  elsewhere  the  School  has 
studied  it. 

Table  1. — Average  Growth  in  Diameter  Breast  High  Outside 

Bark  of  Shortleaf  and  Loblolly  Pine  in 

Ashley  County,  Arkansas. 

(Basis  200  Trees) 


Age, 
Years. 

Diameter, 

breast  high. 

Inches. 

10 
20 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
100 

2.0 
4.7 
7.3 
9.5 
11.6 
13.6 
15.6 
17.5 
19.2 
20.6 

Table  1  gives  the  average  diameter  outside  the  bark  at  breast 
height  (41/2  feet)  of  trees  of  different  ages  from  10  to  100  years. 
It  is  based  upon  the  measurement  of  200  trees. 

Since  these  species  grow  in  mixture  over  most  of  the  tract, 
it  was  thought  best  to  obtain  an  average  figure  for  both  species 
rather  than  to  determine  the  growth  separately  for  each. 

This  rate  of  growth  of  about  an  inch  every  four  years  during 
the  first  forty  years  or  an  inch  every  five  years  for  the  entire  100 


8 


Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine 


years  is  for  average  trees,  and  shows  that  timber  reaches  mer- 
chantable dimensions  from  seed  in  from  forty  to  fifty  years.  This 
is  borne  out  by  the  growth  of  old-field  stands.  Six  plots  of  five 
acres  each  measured  in  old-field  stands  showed  yields  of  from 
7,500  feet  b.m.  to  14,200  feet  b.m.  per  acre,  with  ages  from 
forty  to  forty-seven  years.  The  more  rapidly  growing  trees  reach 
merchantable  size  in  thirty  years  and  old-field  stands  will  yield 
2,000  to  3,000  feet  b.m.  per  acre  when  thirty-five  years  of  age. 
In  the  next  few  years  the  yield  of  merchantable  timber  rapidly 
increases  as  the  trees  attain  merchantable  size. 


Table  2. — Average  Yield  per  Acre  of  Even-Aged  Stands  of   Shortleaf 
Pine,  Under  Ordinary  Conditions,  on  Large  Areas 
in  Ashley  County,  Arkansas. 

(Doyle  Rule) 


Average 

Age  of  Stand, 

Yield  per  Acre, 

Growth  per 

Years. 

Board  Feet. 

Year, 
Board  Feet. 

50 

5,000 

100 

60 

6,600 

110 

70 

8,100 

116 

80 

9,600 

120 

90 

11,000 

122 

100 

12,400 

124 

110 

13,600 

124 

120 

14,800 

123 

130 

15,800 

121 

140 

16,600 

118 

150 

17,200 

115 

Dense  stands  with  a  large  number  of  trees  per  acre,  such  as 
occur  on  old  fields,  cannot  maintain  both  numbers  and  rapid 
growth.  The  increasing  demands  of  larger  trees  for  soil  moisture 
during  the  growing  season  cause  the  number  of  trees  which  can 
continue  to  thrive  on  an  acre  to  diminish  rapidly.  When  most 
of  the  trees  are  of  nearly  the  same  age  and  height,  the  crowding 
out  of  the  weaker  trees  does  not  take  place  as  rapidly  as  it  should, 
and  the  growth  of  all  the  trees  may  be  seriously  retarded.  In  the 
ordinary  forest  the  same  crowding  and  loss  of  numbers  occur,  but 
the  more  broken  and  irregular  character  of  the  stand  makes  it  less 
pronounced.  Under  average  conditions  yields  of  timber  can  be 
depended  on  to  equal  or  exceed  the  results  given  in  Table  2. 

In  fact,  better  yields  per  acre  than  this  are  obtained  in  the 
virgin  forest  on  many  "forties,"  and  with  any  sort  of  management 
which  secures  good  reproduction  and  affords  protection,  these 
yields  should  be  increased  by  one-half,  as  is  shown  by  the  yields 


Possibilities  of  a  Second  Cut  9 

actually  obtained  on  old-field  stands.  In  other  words,  these  are 
in  no  sense  maximum  yields,  but  may  be  obtained  under  almost  any 
circumstances  and  without  expensive  measures. 

These  yields,  shown  in  Table  2,  may  be  increased  from  50  to 
100  per  cent  under  proper  management. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  TRACT 

The  company  desires  to  maintain  as  long  as  possible  the  present 
output.  The  estimate  of  merchantable  timber  indicates  a  cut  of 
approximately  eighteen  years.  The  company  believes  that  growth 
and  the  increase  on  old-field  stands  will  extend  the  cut  two  years. 
The  depreciation  charge  and  investment  in  the  plant  have,  there- 
fore, only  twenty  years  to  run.  If  it  can  be  shown  that,  by  a 
different  procedure,  growth  may  be  more  fully  utilized  and  the  cut 
extended  even  two  or  three  years,  this  policy  would  have  much 
to  recommend  it  from  a  financial  standpoint. 


AGRICULTURAL  POSSIBILITIES 

The  land  will  not  be  kept  permanently  in  forest  by  the  present 
company  and  it  is  planned  ultimately  to  dispose  of  it  as  farm 
lands.  Old  settlers  do  not  consider  the  pine  ridges  suitable  for 
continuous  cropping  and  favor  the  lower  lands,  not  overflowed, 
along  small  streams.  These  soils  have  better  depth,  more  loamy 
texture  and  produce  fair  crops  of  corn,  cotton  or  cane,  while  the 
pine  ridges  are  likely  to  dry  out  and  result  in  crop  failures.  With 
proper  fertilization,  improved  methods  of  cultivation,  better  mar- 
kets and  the  advent  of  truck  crops,  small  fruits  and  orchards, 
much  of  this  land  will  prove  valuable  for  agricultural  use. 

The  company  is  probably  pursuing  the  proper  policy  in  plan- 
ning to  dispose  of  the  entire  tract  at  some  future  time.  But  this 
by  no  means  proves  that  it  is  unwise  to  encourage  a  crop  of  seed- 
ling pine  on  cut-over  lands.  In  twenty  years  such  seedlings  will 
be  five  inches  in  diameter  and  with  increasing  scarcity  of  pine, 
and  the  small  percentage  of  lands  elsewhere  that  are  coming  up 
in  young  forest,  this  small  timber  will  give  the  land  a  prospective 
value  that  may  equal  or  exceed  its  value  for  agriculture  and  would 
aid  greatly  in  its  sale.  By  that  time  purchasers  will  be  keenly 
alive  to  the  value  of  young  timber  on  land,  even  if  desired  for  agri- 
culture. Such  portions  of  the  farm  as  are  not  under  cultivation 
should  be  in  growing  forest. 


10  Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine 

SECURING  A  SECOND  CUT  OF  PINE 

The  desire  of  the  company  to  secure  some  return  from  growth 
has  taken  the  form  of  instructions  not  to  cut  trees  smaller  than 
fourteen  inches  on  the  stump,  equal  to  about  twelve  inches  breast 
high.  The  carrying  out  of  this  rule  is  left  entirely  to  the  sawyers, 
under  the  rather  hurried  and  indifferent  inspection  of  the  team 
boss.  The  method  is  an  almost  complete  failure,  for  the  following 
reasons : 

(1)  There  is  lack  of  proper  inspection  of  the  saw  crews,  who 
do  practically  as  they  please  about  taking  or  leaving  trees. 

(2)  A  diameter  limit  is  wrong  in  application  as  it  removes 
young,  thrifty,  rapidly  growing  trees  if  over  fourteen  inches  and 
leaves  standing  tall,  slender,  poor-crowned  old  trees  of  very  slow 
growth  which  ought  to  be  cut. 

(3)  Trees  are  not  selected  for  wind  resistance  and  many  trees 
so  left  will  blow  over  because  of  weak  roots. 

(4)  In  stands  of  overmature  timber  often  there  are  virtually 
no  trees  below  fourteen  inches  in  diameter  that  are  suitable  to 
leave. 

(5)  At  present,  trees  left  are  not  adequately  protected  from 
destruction  by  fires  which  consume  the  tops  and  debris  after  log- 
ging.    They  are  apt  to  be  a  total  loss  from  this  cause. 

(6)  While  leaving  this  nucleus  for  a  second  cut,  no  effort  is 
made  to  protect  smaller  timber,  which  is  often  smashed  in  felling, 
slashed  down  for  skids  to  support  temporary  spurs  in  wet  weather, 
and  burned  by  slash  fires. 

The  sawyers  are  under  instructions  not  to  fell  trees  onto  groups 
of  small  timber,  but  inspection  is  necessary  to  secure  proper  com- 
pliance with  this  or  other  rules. 

CONDITION  OF  THE  CUT-OVER  LANDS 

The  condition  of  the  cut-over  land  is  at  present  very  unsatis- 
factory. Only  in  widely  scattered,  occasional  patches  is  enough 
young  timber  found  to  pay  for  a  second  operation.  Elsewhere 
there  has  been  practically  no  timber  left  standing  and  severe 
fires  have  burned  the  slash,  destroying  the  immature  pole  timber. 
In  places  a  dense  crop  of  seedlings  has  sprung  up,  but  over 
the  greater  portion  of  the  cut-over  lands  fires  and  the  lack  of 
seed  trees  have  prevented  a  new  growth  of  pine,  and  only  grass, 
worthless  oaks  and  scrub  sweet  gum  are  coming  in. 


Possibilities  of  a  Second  Cut  11 

PROPOSED  PLAN  FOR  SECURING  A  BETTER 
SECOND  CUT 

The  company  should  either  abandon  the  plan  of  leaving  trees 
below  fourteen  inches  in  diameter  or  it  should  adopt  an  entirely 
different  policy  involving  the  selection  of  the  trees  to  leave  and  the 
proper  handling  of  the  fire  risk.  The  latter  policy  appears  best, 
provided  it  can  be  shown  that  it  is  comparatively  simple  to  enforce 
and  that  it  will  result  profitably.  This  involves  the  following 
essential  points : 

(1)  Stands  not  suitable  for  a  second  cut  should  be  cut  clear 
unless  a  few  seed  trees  are  left  to  restock  the  land. 

(2)  In  stands  which  contain  suitable  young  timber  the  trees 
to  be  removed  should  be  marked  and  no  others  should  be  cut. 

(3)  Proper  disposal  of  the  tops  must  be  secured  under  inspec- 
tion to  eliminate  the  fire  risk  and  preserve  the  timber  left  standing. 

RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTAL  MARKING  FOR  A 
SECOND  CUT 

To  present  the  subject  concretely,  certain  areas  were  mapped 
and  separated  into  (a)  those  upon  which  the  timber  was  mature 
and  not  suitable  for  a  second  cut,  and  (b)  those  which  were  well 
adapted  to  a  second  cut  because  they  contained  young  timber. 
The  mature  stands  from  which  it  will  be  difficult  to  secure  a 
second  cut  were  marked  so  as  to  leave  for  seeding  purposes  only 
healthy,  rapidly  growing  trees  as  small  as  possible,  which  would 
stand  until  the  next  cut  twenty  years  hence.  This  policy  is  not 
recommended  except  where  the  company  decides  that  the  securing 
of  a  complete  stand  of  seedlings  on  the  cut-over  lands  will  justify 
the  present  expense. 

On  200  acres  so  marked,  the  stand  averaged  14,000  feet  b.m. 
per  acre,  or  560,000  feet  b.m.  per  "forty."  By  proper  selection 
the  seed  trees  selected  contained  1,050  feet  b.m.  per  acre  or 
42,000  feet  b.m.  per  "forty,"  which  is  7.5  per  cent  of  the  stand. 
The  total  number  of  trees  per  "forty"  was  800,  or  20  per  acre ;  this 
would  be  reduced  by  the  proposed  cut  to  150,  or  3.75  trees  per 
acre,  which  is  18  per  cent  of  the  whole  number.  It  is  evident  from 
this  that  comparatively  small  trees  were  selected.  The  growth 
added  to  the  seed  trees  will,  because  of  their  size,  probably  be 
between  2  and  3  per  cent  a  year,  or  a  possible  200  to  300  feet 
b.m.  in  ten  years.  In  twenty  years,  the  yield  from  these  trees 
would  probably  be  increased  to  1,500  feet  b.m.  per  acre.     The 


12 


Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine 


actual  sizes  taken  and  left  in  each  inch  class  on  an  average  forty 
acres  containing  810  trees  are  shown  in  Table  3. 

Table  3. — Stand  of  Timber  on  an  Average  Forty  Acres  of  Mature  and 
Old  Shortleaf  and  Loblolly  Pine  in  Ashley  County,  Arkansas, 
Showing  Total  Number  of  Trees,  Those  to  be  Removed,  and  Those 
That  Would  Remain. 


Diameter, 

breast  high, 

inches. 

Total  No.  of 

Trees  to  be 

Trees  to  be 

trees. 

removed. 

left  standing. 

12 

50 

26 

24 

13 

30 

15 

15 

14 

30 

16 

14 

15 

25 

10 

15 

16 

37 

21 

16 

17 

35 

22 

13 

18 

42 

29 

13 

19 

31 

23 

8 

20 

47 

38 

9 

21 

38 

33 

5 

22 

52 

47 

5 

23 

40 

36 

4 

24 

55 

51 

4 

25 

45 

43 

2 

26 

43 

42 

1 

27 

36 

37 

1 

28 

38 

36 

1 

29 

23 

23 

— 

30 

26 

26 

1 

31 

16 

16 

— 

32 

17 

17 

— 

33 

12 

12 

— 

34 

13 

13 

— 

35 

6 

6 

— 

36 

8 

8 

— 

37 

2 

2 

— 

38 

4 

4 

— 

39 

1 

1 

— 

40 

4 

4 

— 

41 

1 

1 

— 

42 

1 

1 

— 

Over 

42 

2 

2 

— 

810 

658 

152 

Number  of  Trees  Left. 


Below  20  inches,  d.  b.  h 

118 
34 

152 

On  areas  adapted  to  a  second  cut,  tabulation  of  actual  marking 
on  200  acres  shows  the  following  results :  average  stand  per  acre, 
8,129  feet  b.m. ;  on  forty  acres,  347,292  feet  b.m. ;  average  stand 
per  acre  to  be  left  after  cutting,  1,805  feet  b.m.;  on  forty  acres, 
79,300  feet  b.m.  Thus  22.2  per  cent  of  the  stand  or  1,800  feet 
b.m.  would  be  left  as  against  7.5  per  cent  or  1,050  feet  b.m.  in 
mature  timber.      The  younger   stands   contained   1,051   trees   12 


Possibilities  of  a  Second  Cut 


13 


inches  and  over,  "breast  high,"  on  an  average  "forty,"  or  26.2 
trees  per  acre.  Stands  composed  wholly  of  young  timber  would  have 
about  50  trees  per  acre.  In  the  mixed  stands,  457  trees  would  be 
left  on  a  "forty"  or  11.4  trees  per  acre,  which  is  43.5  per  cent  of 
the  total  number  but  only  22.2  per  cent  of  the  volume.  How  wide 
a  departure  from  the  rigid  diameter  limit  the  proper  selection  of 
trees  makes  is  shown  for  an  average  "forty"  in  Table  4.  In  the 
method  of  individual  selection  it  is  seen  that  about  one-third  of  the 
trees  below  15  inches,  one-half  of  those  between  15  and  17  inches, 
and  practically  all  20  inches  and  over  are  to  be  removed.  A  few 
above  20  inches  are  to  be  left  to  provide  seed  for  openings  made  by 
cutting  large  groups  of  old  timber.  They  can  be  removed  in  the 
first  cut  if  thought  best. 

Table  4.— Stand  of  Timber  on  an  Average  Forty  Acres  of  Mixed  Young 
and  Mature  Shortleaf  and  Loblolly  Pine  in  Ashley  County, 
Arkansas,  Showing  Total  Number  Trees  to  be  Removed  and  Those 
That  Would  Remain. 


Diameter, 

Total  No.  of 

Trees  to  be 

Trees  to  be 

breast  high. 

trees. 

removed. 

left  standing. 

12 

163 

67 

96 

13 

128 

50 

78 

14 

119 

48 

71 

15 

112 

56 

56 

16 

99 

48 

51 

17 

84 

42 

42 

18 

66 

37 

29 

19 

42 

30 

12 

20 

38 

29 

9 

21 

24 

19 

5 

22 

21 

18 

3 

23 

18 

16 

2 

24 

20 

18 

2 

25 

16 

15 

1 

26 

15 

15 

— 

27 

11 

11 

— 

28 

12 

12 

— 

29 

9 

9 

— 

30 

8 

8 

— 

31 

6 

6 

— 

5 

5 

— 

33 

6 

6 

— 

34 

6 

6 

— 

35 

4 

4 

— 

36 

4 

4 

— 

37 

1 

1 

— 

38 

2 

2 

— 

39 

1 

1 

— 

40 

5 

5 

— 

Over  40 

6 

6 

— 

1,051 

594 

457 

Number  of  Trees  Left. 

Below  20  inches,  d.  b.  h 

435 
22 

457 

14       Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine 

NECESSITY  OF  MARKING  TREES  TO  BE  CUT 

It  is  necessary  to  mark  the  trees  to  be  cut  instead  of  depending 
on  an  arbitrary  diameter  limit  for  the  following  reasons : 

(1)  Windfall.  Opening  a  stand  greatly  increases  the  danger 
of  windfall.  Trees  differ  greatly  in  their  wind  resistance.  Those 
growing  in  crowded  clumps  have  weak  roots,  while  thrifty  trees 
growing  in  partial  openings  have  well-developed  roots.  By  selec- 
tion of  wind-firm  trees  to  be  left  the  danger  of  windfall  in  the 
remaining  stand  may  be  reduced  to  reasonable  proportions. 

(2)  Growth.  The  purpose  of  leaving  these  trees  is  to  secure 
growth  which  should  be  as  rapid  as  possible.  But  trees  differ 
remarkably  in  their  rate  of  growth,  a  fact  that  can  be  verified  by 
cutting  into  a  few  at  random  and  counting  annual  rings  of  growth 
in  the  last  inch  of  radius.  The  trees  best  to  leave  for  the  second 
crop  are  those  making  the  largest  growth  per  cent,  based  on  the 
present  volume  of  the  tree.  A  small  thrifty  tree  makes  a  higher 
growth  per  cent  than  a  large  tree  because  the  volume  of  the  former 
is  less  at  present  and  the  relative  increase  is  much  greater.  The 
character  of  the  crown  indicates  the  vigor  of  the  tree,  since  the 
growth  is  directly  dependent  on  the  amount  of  foliage,  which,  in 
turn,  is  determined  by  the  available  light  and  root  space.  Rapidly 
growing  trees  are  sure  to  have  thrifty,  large  and  well-developed 
crowns.     This  can  be  told  at  a  glance  after  a  few  days'  practice. 

(3)  Soundness.  All  trees  left  should  be  free  from  rot,  and 
sound  at  the  base  to  lessen  fire  injury.  Many  trees  below  14 
inches  in  diameter  are  defective  and  unsuitable  for  leaving  and 
should  be  removed. 

(4)  Welfare  of  the  whole  stand.  Many  stands  of  young  tim- 
ber are  too  crowded  to  make  good  growth  during  the  next  twenty 
years.  Such  stands  should  be  thinned  of  about  half  of  the  trees, 
leaving,  independent  of  diameter,  those  which  show  good  crowns, 
a  clear  length  and  fast  growth,  and  removing  large,  limby  trees, 
and  small,  stunted,  or  slow-growing  trees  with  poor  crowns,  and 
those  that  are  defective  or  crooked. 

GROWTH  IN  THINNED  STANDS 

If  cutting  is  done  on  the  basis  of  a  rigid  diameter  limit,  at  least 
half  the  trees  left  will  make  poor  growth.  But  if  every  tree  left 
is  properly  selected  the  growth  to  be  expected  in  ten  years  is 
indicated  by  measurements  taken  on  70  acres  containing  8,837 
feet  b.m.  per  acre.  The  trees  to  be  left  after  proper  marking 
contained  2,630  feet  b.m.  per  acre,  or  30  per  cent  of  the  whole, 


Possibilities  of  a  Second  Cut  15 

which  during  the  next  ten  years  should  amount  to  4>,4t66  feet  b.m., 
which  is  an  increase  of  70  per  cent  in  volume  on  the  trees  left 
standing. 

This  is  explained  as  follows.  The  calculated  growth  of  the 
trees  now  12  inches  and  over  in  diameter  will  be  1,206  feet  b.m. 
per  acre,  and  the  trees  now  below  12  inches  in  diameter  which  will 
grow  to  be  over  12  inches  in  ten  years  will  add  639  feet  b.m.  per 
acre,  giving  a  total  of  1,836  board  feet.  The  stand  to  be  left 
after  cutting,  viz.,  2,630  feet  b.m.  per  acre,  is  slightly  better  than 
the  average,  which  will  be  nearer  1,800  feet  b.m.  per  acre.  The 
growth  per  cent,  which  includes  the  maturing  of  trees  now  too 
small  to  cut,  is  conservative  and  might  well  exceed  the  above  esti- 
mate of  70  per  cent  in  ten  years  on  all  such  stands.  The  reason 
for  their  rapid  increase  in  volume  is  that  the  trees  are  in  the  best 
condition  and  of  the  best  sizes  for  growth,  while  the  removal  of  all 
slow-growing  and  large  timber  increases  the  relative  average 
growth  on  those  remaining. 

GROWTH  IN  VIRGIN  STANDS 

The  growth  in  virgin  stands  of  pine  in  the  next  decade  is  deter- 
mined by  the  age  and  condition  of  the  timber.  Stands  from  which 
the  old,  overmature  trees  have  been  removed  present  quite  a  dif- 
ferent condition  from  that  existing  on  the  average  "forty"  of 
virgin  timber.  After  trees  have  reached  a  certain  size  and  age, 
they  lose  vitality,  and  succumb  to  heart-rot,  insects  or  wind.  The 
loss  of  one  old  tree,  unless  it  can  be  logged,  will  offset  ten  years' 
growth  on  a  great  many  others.  Hence,  if  the  stand  contains  a 
large  proportion  of  old  and  large  trees,  it  is  probably  not  increas- 
ing in  volume  at  all  but  the  reverse,  while  the  value  of  the  standing 
timber  may  be  sinking  because  of  the  progress  of  decay. 

Owing  to  the  tendency  of  these  pines  to  grow  in  even-aged 
groups,  and  to  the  operation  of  natural  destructive  agencies,  an 
even  distribution  of  age  classes  from  overmature  to  seedlings  is 
seldom  found  on  an  area  as  small  as  forty  acres.  The  timber 
will  be  largely  overmature  veterans,  or  young  and  thrifty,  and 
the  volume  of  the  stand  be  actually  decreasing,  stagnant  or 
increasing  according  to  the  age  class  which  preponderates.  On 
large  areas  it  may  happen  that  the  annual  decay  and  loss  in 
virgin  forests  just  equals  the  annual  growth,  while  for  any  one 
stand  this  same  balance  will  be  attained  in  the  course  of  time. 

The  tract  of  70  acres  selected  for  the  study  of  growth  after 
thinning  and  removal  of  mature  timber  contained  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  young  thrifty  trees  than  is  found  in  typical  overmature 


16       Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine 

stands.  A  study  of  the  probable  growth  on  this  same  area 
indicated  that  if  the  stand  were  not  cut,  the  growth  in  ten  years 
would  amount  to  3,299  feet  b.m.,  or  36  per  cent  of  the  present 
stand,  making  a  total  of  12,068  feet  b.m.  It  thus  appears  that 
in  stands  similar  to  those  selected,  nearly  twice  the  actual  volume 
growth  would  be  secured  if  the  stand  were  not  thinned  than  can 
be  expected  after  thinning.  Owing  to  the  greatly  reduced 
volume  of  the  stand  after  thinning  and  the  much  greater  average 
growth  of  the  remaining  trees,  compared  with  those  removed,  the 
growth  per  cent,  or  ratio  of  growth  to  volume  of  stand  on  the 
thinned  or  cut-over  tract,  is  double  the  per  cent  growth  secured 
in  the  virgin  stand.  The  stands  selected  represent  those  in  good 
condition  for  growth,  and  not  those  containing  a  surplus  of  over- 
mature timber.  A  reduction  in  the  number  of  trees  to  40  per  cent 
of  the  former  stand  might  be  expected  to  reduce  the  growth  in 
the  next  decade,  and  usually  does  so.  Only  in  "forties"  of  over- 
mature timber  is  there  apt  to  be  a  net  increase  in  growth  after 
thinning,  and  this  is  due  to  elimination  of  loss  from  natural  agen- 
cies. Even  then,  a  fair  stand  of  young  timber  must  be  present,  as 
a  basis  for  the  second  cut,  to  secure  this  result. 

It  is  important,  therefore,  to  emphasize  the  real  advantage 
gained  by  leaving  the  smaller  and  thriftier  trees  for  a  second  cut. 
This  lies,  as  indicated,  in  the  very  large  increase  in  growth  per 
cent,  obtained  after  thinning,  upon  the  investment  thus  made. 
The  leaving  of  virgin  timber,  even  when  thrifty,  involves  an 
investment  measured  by  the  volume,  quality  and  stumpage  value 
of  the  stand.  Clear  cutting  terminates  this  investment.  The 
growth  in  volume  in  virgin  stands  must  be  considered,  not  alone, 
but  in  its  relation  to  the  existing  volume  of  the  stand  in  which 
it  is  produced.  While  the  growth  in  actual  volume  falls  off  as 
the  result  of  removing  four-fifths  of  the  stand,  the  growth  per 
cent  of  the  remaining  stand  is  twice  what  it  was  before  the  cutting. 

INCREASE  IN  VALUE  OF  SECOND  CUT 

Seven  per  cent  per  year  in  volume  does  not  represent  the  true 
increase  in  value  of  these  thinned  stands.  The  lumber  produced 
from  selected  trees  will  be  of  high  quality  and  value  since  they  will 
be  freer  from  knots  and  other  defects.  If  stumpage  values 
advance,  this  increase  will  be  still  greater.  It  is  safe  to  count 
on  10  per  cent  annual  increase  in  value  of  properly  marked 
stands  containing  the  requisite  quantity  of  young  timber  after 
cutting.  These  same  stands  would  give  scarcely  5  per  cent 
increase   in   value   per  year  before   they   are   cut   over,   most   of 


Possibilities  of  a  Second  Cut  17 

which  would  be   due  to   increased   stumpage  values   rather   than 
growth. 

BRUSH  DISPOSAL 

The  mature  trees  are  fairly  safe  from  fire  injury  before  logging, 
but  the  burning  of  the  slash  following  logging  will  destroy  prac- 
tically all  young  timber.  This  menace  can  be  avoided  with  slight 
additional  expense.  The  remaining  trees  are  able  to  endure  any 
fire  that  is  no  hotter  than  the  average  surface  fire  that  consumes 
six  to  eight  years'  accumulation  of  litter  and  needles.  To  avoid 
injury  to  the  trees  left  after  logging,  it  will  be  necessary  (1)  to 
keep  the  tops  of  the  fallen  timber  about  ten  feet  away  from  young 
standing  trees;  (2)  to  burn  these  tops  when  the  flames  will  not  be 
too  hot,  but  will  consume  most  of  the  needles  and  small  twigs. 

The  first  object  may  be  accomplished  at  the  time  of  logging  by 
felling  the  trees  away  from  small  timber,  and  by  lopping  branches 
from  tops  which  lie  too  close  to  young  timber.  It  may  occasion- 
ally be  necessary  to  drag  small  tops  away  from  young  trees.  The 
work  can  be  done  at  slight  expense  by  utilization  of  the  present 
force  under  proper  supervision. 

Cutting  and  piling  the  tops  cannot  be  justified  for  private 
operations  in  southern  yellow  pine.  The  burning  must  be  done 
broadcast.  Fire  should  be  set  in  the  slash  as  soon  as  possible 
after  logging,  but  always  when  conditions  are  favorable.  The 
rule  should  be  to  burn  as  soon  as  fire  will  take  hold  and  never  after 
the  weather  becomes  dry  and  hot.  To  prevent  hot  fires  in  the 
slash  during  the  summer  months,  all  land  should  be  burned  over 
before  logging  and  again  as  soon  as  possible  afterwards,  unless 
it  seems  feasible  to  keep  fire  out  until  rains  occur.  The  problem 
of  safe  burning  without  injury  to  the  remaining  timber  rests  on 
intelligent  supervision. 

If  the  reserve  timber  is  brought  through  this  first  burning,  it 
can  be  successfully  protected  from  subsequent  fires,  and  it  will  be 
in  condition  to  seed  down  the  whole  area  and  give  rise  to  an 
abundant  crop  of  seedlings.  After  the  first  six  to  eight  years  the 
seedlings  will  be  large  enough  to  survive  moderate  surface  fires. 

FINANCIAL  ASPECTS 

Since  the  leaving  of  a  portion  of  the  stand  which  would  other- 
wise be  cut  takes  the  form  of  an  investment,  the  probable  returns 
should  be  calculated.  Assuming  that  2,630  feet  b.m.  per  acre 
left  standing  will  increase  in  ten  years  to  4>,4>66  feet  b.m.,  this 
computation  is  easily  made. 


18  Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine 

With  land  valued  at  $5  per  acre  and  stumpage  at  $5  per  thou- 
sand, this  investment  should,  after  paying  all  expenses,  yield  5 
per  cent  compound  interest  at  the  end  of  ten  years.  Assuming 
an  initial  cost  of  marking  of  10  cents  per  acre,  and  allowing  5 
cents  per  1,000  feet  b.m.  for  lopping  and  burning  the  tops,  an 
average  stand  of  8,000  feet  b.m.  gives  an  expense  of  50  cents 
per  acre.  Tops  can  be  piled  and  burned  for  from  25  to  50  cents 
per  1,000  feet  b.m.,  and  without  piling,  the  expense  is  greatly 
reduced.     The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  initial  investment: 

2,630  feet  b.m.  @  $5 $13. 15 

Land    5 .  00 

Marking  and  brush  disposal .50 

Total  initial  investment $18.65  per  acre. 

Assuming  there  is  a  tax  of  1  per  cent  on  this  valuation  gives 
18  cents  per  year.  Fire  protection  if  undertaken  should  not  cost 
over  2  cents  per  acre,  making  a  total  of  20  cents  per  year  for 
taxes  and  protection.  Capitalizing  at  5  per  cent,  this  would  mean 
an  investment  of  $4  per  acre.  This  makes  a  total  investment  of 
$22.65,  which  at  5  per  cent  compound  interest  amounts  to  $36.89 
in  ten  years.  At  that  time  if  the  land  is  still  valued  at  $5  and  the 
$4  capital  used  to  supply  the  20  cents  annual  charge  is  credited, 
the  net  cost  of  the  timber  in  ten  years  at  5  per  cent  compound 
interest  is  $27.89. 

At  this  time  the  stand  will  contain  4,466  feet  b.m.  per  acre. 
If  it  is  worth  $27.89,  it  has  paid  5  per  cent,  which  is  equivalent 
to  a  stumpage  value  of  $6.25  per  thousand.  It  is  fair  to  assume 
that  this  increase  in  price  will  occur  in  the  ten-year  period. 

If  the  lands  cut  over  are  not  left  in  a  productive  condition,  they 
will  lie  idle  until  sold.  No  interest  on  the  investment  will  be 
earned  during  this  time,  but  taxes  will  continue  and  the  total  loss 
should  be  gauged  by  the  compound  interest  on  the  money  invested 
in  non-productive  lands.  The  price  of  land  may  rise,  in  which 
case  the  increased  value  will  tend  to  offset  this  loss  of  interest. 
This  would  occur  whether  or  not  the  land  were  cut  over. 

If  the  lands  are  not  cut  over,  the  original  uneven-aged  growth 
will  probably  increase  in  value,  but  at  half  or  less  than  half  the 
rate  per  cent  on  the  investment  that  it  would  if  culled  of  dead  or 
unproductive  capital.  In  either  of  the  above  cases,  these  lands 
as  a  whole,  with  growth  balancing  decay,  are  carried  by  the  com- 
pany at  much  greater  relative  cost  than  if  put  into  condition  for 
growth. 


Possibilities  of  a  Second  Cut  19 

Once  the  land  is  cut  over  properly,  the  investment  in  this  second 
cut  will  carry  itself  independent  of  all  other  portions  of  the  opera- 
tion, and  the  investment  left  in  the  woods  or  spent  for  protection 
or  taxes  will,  as  a  rule,  be  returned  with  5  per  cent  compound 
interest  when  the  final  cutting  is  made. 

Cutting  should,  therefore,  be  confined  as  much  as  possible  to 
stands  which  are  suitable  for  a  second  crop,  since  the  sooner  these 
are  cut  over  the  greater  will  be  the  amount  of  growth  secured 
before  the  close  of  the  whole  operation.  An  exception  to  this 
rule  is  timber  which  is  very  old  and  decadent,  which  should  be 
cut  as  soon  as  possible.  But  unless  there  is  rapid  deterioration, 
it  will  pay  to  hold  mature  timber  for  better  prices. 

ADMINISTRATION 

The  present  superintendent  of  logging,  the  camp  foremen  and 
the  team  bosses  are  fully  occupied  with  the  details  of  the  work  as 
now  conducted.  Two  extra  employees  are  needed  to  assure  proper 
enforcement  of  the  provisions  outlined  to  secure  a  second  cut. 
One  man  could  begin  as  saw  boss  and,  while  engaged  at  first 
chiefly  in  eliminating  waste,  direct  or  supervise  the  felling  and 
secure  the  requisite  amount  of  top  lopping.  Burning  could  be 
done  by  one  or  two  laborers  under  his  supervision. 

The  marking  of  the  timber  might  easily  be  done  by  a  second 
man  who  should  cover  a  maximum  of  forty  to  fifty  acres  per  day. 
Both  of  these  men  could  be  woodsmen  or  laborers  of  the  better  and 
more  capable  class.  The  saw  boss  would  prevent  more  than  enough 
waste  to  pay  his  salary,  leaving  the  wages  of  the  other  man  as  a 
charge  against  the  second  crop.  If,  by  his  marking,  the  returns 
from  growth  can  be  increased  from  1,000  to  1,800  feet  b.m.  per 
acre,  which  is  a  fair  estimate  of  the  improved  growth  resulting 
from  the  proper  selection  of  trees,  the  net  result  of  marking  forty 
acres  is  an  increased  yield  of  32,000  feet  b.m.  in  ten  years.  At 
this  rate  the  investment  in  wages  for  marking  shows  a  good 
profit  over  the  system  of  rigid  diameter  limits  in  cutting. 

It  is  recommended  that  a  forester  familiar  with  southern  pine 
be  employed  to  train  the  woodsman  in  marking.  The  principles 
of  marking  are  easily  applied,  but  must  be  learned  by  actual 
demonstration  before  ordinary  woodsmen  can  be  trusted  to  carry 
them  out  successfully.  The  forester  should  classify  the  land  on 
the  basis  of  the  second  cut,  make  a  type  and  timber  map,  and 
exercise  supervision  over  brush  disposal.  He  should  study  the 
cut-over  lands,  and  the  problem  of  windfalls  and  insect  attacks, 
and  be  responsible  for  the  efficient  direction  of  all  operations 
connected  with  prolonging  the  cut. 


20       Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine 

Special  attention  must  early  be  given  to  windfall,  because 
damage  from  this  source  is  most  likely  to  occur  within  a  year  or 
two  after  the  cutting. 

SUSTAINED   PRODUCTION   OF   TIMBER 

It  would  be  possible  under  proper  management  to  maintain  a 
perpetual  supply  of  timber  on  the  holdings  of  this  company,  but 
the  present  cut  could  not  be  sustained.  Studies  of  possible  yields 
on  9,000  acres  showed  that,  under  proper  management  and  by 
cutting  the  large  timber  first,  a  cut  of  150  feet  b.m.  per  acre 
can  be  maintained  for  100  years  from  the  timber  now  on  the 
ground.  The  mean  annual  yield  on  lands  of  average  stocking  is 
125  feet  b.m.  (See  Table  2.)  Some  land  yields  more  than  this,  as, 
for  instance,  old  fields,  while  much  land,  because  of  poor  stocking, 
is  yielding  less.  A  large  per  cent  of  the  total  forest  area  is 
now  occupied  by  stands  considerably  more  than  100  years  old. 
The  cut  of  150  feet  b.m.  per  year  could  be  obtained,  first,  by  a 
removal  of  the  present  surplus  of  old  timber,  and  second,  from 
actual  growth.  This  figure  was  arrived  at  by  computing  the  pos- 
sible cut  and  probably  growth  on  several  tracts  averaging  about 
2,000  acres  each,  on  which  the  area  of  timber  of  each  age  class 
was  known  from  field  reconnaissance.  This  would  include  the  cut- 
ting of  all  young  timber  and  seedlings  now  growing,  but  would 
not  include  new  crops  of  seedlings  to  be  obtained  in  the  future. 
One  hundred  years  will  allow  the  production  of  large  timber  with 
a  high  percentage  of  "uppers,"  probably  25  per  cent.  By  cutting 
the  present  crops  in  seventy  years  a  somewhat  larger  cut  per  year 
would  be  obtained  for  that  period  through  a  more  rapid  removal 
of  the  old  timber,  but  the  timber  from  then  on  would  have  to  be 
cut  when  much  smaller  and  less  valuable  if  the  cut  is  to  continue. 

With  150  feet  b.m.  per  year,  an  annual  cut  of  15,000,000  feet 
b.m.  could  be  obtained  on  a  tract  of  100,000  acres.  Should  such 
a  policy  be  followed  it  would  mean  the  saving  of  trees  in  mature 
stands  to  act  as  seed  trees ;  the  elimination  of  fire  from  cut-over 
lands  for  six  to  eight  years  after  the  slash  had  been  burned ;  and 
it  would  stimulate  the  retention  of  lands  in  forests  which  would 
otherwise  be  sold  for  agricultural  purposes. 

The  two  most  important  questions,  aside  from  the  greater  use- 
fulness of  the  soil  for  agricultural  purposes,  are  future  trans- 
portation and  logging  costs,  and  future  taxes.  The  logging 
operations  on  100,000  acres  managed  for  a  second  cut  would  be 
more  scattered,  with  smaller  cuts  per  acre  and  consequent 
increased  costs.     Taxes  may  increase  greatly  unless  the  education 


Possibilities  of  a  Second  Cut  21 

of  the  public  on  questions  of  public  policy  secures  equitable  tax 
laws,  which  will  prevent  unjust  burdens  of  taxation  on  growing 
timber. 

The  forest  itself  is  well  adapted  to  continuous  production.  The 
unlogged  portions  present  a  complete  series  of  age  classes,  which 
would  enable  the  inauguration  and  perpetual  maintenance  of  an 
annual  cut.  On  the  9,000  acres  studied  there  was  of  overmature 
or  decadent  timber,  1,890  acres,  or  21  per  cent;  large  sound, 
mature  timber,  2,070  acres,  or  23  per  cent;  small,  merchantable 
timber,  12  inches  and  over  in  diameter,  1,710  acres,  or  19  per  cent; 
and  of  immature  growing  timber,  poles  and  saplings,  2,880  acres, 
or  32  per  cent ;  cleared  farmland,  450  acres,  or  5  per  cent. 

To  a  greater  or  less  degree  this  proportion  would  hold  good 
on  most  of  the  timberlands  studied,  although  the  percentage  of 
overmature  and  large  timber  is  greater  in  Louisiana. 

Because  of  the  large  investment  in  mills  and  transportation, 
under  present  conditions,  all  that  can  be  expected  is  a  well-directed 
effort  to  obtain  growth  on  the  younger  timber  which  is  now  large 
enough  to  cut  or  will  become  so  inside  of  twenty  years.  At  the 
end  of  that  time,  with  all  mature  timber  cut,  it  would  be  no  longer 
possible  to  cut  150  feet  b.m.  per  year  and  even  if  the  reproduc- 
tion of  seedlings  had  been  secured  and  the  small  pole  timber  left 
unharmed,  the  possible  output  from  100,000  acres  would  be  very 
small  for  the  succeeding  thirty  to  forty  years.  If  fires  are  per- 
mitted to  run  through  the  slash  promiscuously  and  in  the  hottest 
weather,  as  is  now  the  case,  much  of  this  cut-over  land  will 
be  virtually  devoid  of  any  pine  growth  for  a  century,  unless 
artificially  restocked. 

SUMMARY  OF  RECOMMENDATIONS 

The  measures  necessary  to  secure  a  second  cut  are  recommended 
as  being  inexpensive  and  practical. 

The  measures  necessary  to  secure  reproduction  and  protection 
of  seedlings  would  involve  a  slightly  increased  expense,  would 
promise  no  immediate  financial  return,  but  would  preserve  the 
productiveness  of  the  soil  by  insuring  a  timber  crop  on  land  not 
farmed,  and  might  prove  ultimately  of  great  financial  value  to  the 
land  owners  when  they  come  to  sell  these  lands.  These  measures  can 
be  urged  only  as  a  matter  of  far-reaching  public  policy.  If  timber 
owners  believe  that  a  second  growth  of  seedling  pine  will  be  of  great 
benefit  to  the  community  and  state,  it  is  in  their  power  to  secure 
it  on  their  own  lands  now  at  less  expense  than  at  any  future  time  or 


22  Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine 

by  any  other  owner,  yet  such  a  policy  might  not  be  profitable  to 
them. 

Since  it  is  possible  that  these  lands  may  ultimately  be  used  for 
agriculture,  the  state  government  can  hardly  be  justified  in  any 
attempt  to  compel  the  timberland  owners  to  undertake  measures 
that  will  assure  a  permanent  forest.  States  can  encourage  private 
efforts  at  reforestation  by  proper  tax  laws  and  fire  protection,  or 
such  lands  can  be  acquired  by  states  and  reforested  at  state 
expense.  Along  these  lines,  and  not  by  arbitrary  regulation, 
progress  towards  securing  new  crops  of  pine  must  be  made. 


PART  II 

CLOSE  UTILIZATION  OF  TIMBER 

By  Ralph  C.  Bryant 


INTRODUCTION 

The  lack  of  close  utilization  of  yellow  pine  timber  is  apparent 
on  many  operations  in  the  South.  In  the  following  discussion 
some  of  the  more  common  wastes  are  considered  and  a  method 
suggested  whereby  lumbermen  may  prolong  the  life  of  their  opera- 
tions. The  data  were  secured  during  the  years  1907-12  in  Mis- 
souri, Alabama,  Louisiana,  Texas  and  Arkansas.  The  need  for 
the  exercise  of  more  care  in  felling  and  log  making  was  distinctly 
shown  in  the  discussion  which  followed  the  writer's  presentation  of 
this  subject  before  the  Southern  Logging  Association  during  its 
annual  meeting  in  September,  1912. 

STUMPS 

Yellow  pine  operators  in  the  past  have  cut  high  stumps  and  the 
loss  of  merchantable  material  from  this  source,  in  many  cases, 
has  totaled  several  per  cent  of  the  stand.  The  more  progressive 
loggers  now  realize  that  this  form  of  waste  is  needless  and  insist 
on  stumps  of  a  reasonable  height,  usually  between  eighteen  and 
twenty-four  inches.  However,  there  are  many  instances  where 
waste  still  occurs  through  lack  of  proper  supervision  of  the  saw 
crews. 

There  are  several  points  to  be  considered  in  determining  the 
proper  height  at  which  stumps  should  be  cut.  Among  these  are: 
(a)  size  of  the  timber;  (b)  soundness  of  the  butt;  (c)  amount  of 
pitch  in  the  butt;  and  (d)  labor  conditions  in  the  region. 

In  the  case  of  sound  trees  stump  heights  should  not  be  greater 
than  the  diameter  of  the  trees  at  the  cutting  point,  with  a  maximum 
height  of  24  to  26  inches,  even  for  the  largest  trees.  That  the 
latter  heights  are  thoroughly  practical  for  large  trees  is  evidenced 
by  the  fact  that  careful  operators  use  them. 

Where  butts  are  defective  or  pitchy  there  may  not  be  any  gain 
from  cutting  low  stumps  since  the  added  material  secured  might 
be  thrown  away  at  the  mill ;  however,  the  faller's  judgment  should 
not  be  taken  in  such  cases  without  being  checked  by  a  saw  boss. 


24 


Peolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine 


A  difficulty  is  sometimes  experienced  by  operators  in  securing 
low  stumps  when  labor  is  scarce,  because  the  lower  the  cut  the 
more  fatiguing  the  work,  and  unless  all  operators  in  a  given 
section  have  the  same  standards,  the  workmen  will  seek  employ- 
ment with  those  who  are  most  lax  in  their  methods. 

It  may  not  always  be  possible  to  secure  as  much  extra  material 
by  cutting  low  stumps  and  saving  these  sections  as  is  shown  in 
Table  5,  because  of  the  possibility  of  having  to  leave  a  short 
section  in  the  top  of  the  tree  which  is  not  of  sufficient  length  to 
make  an  added  2  feet  on  the  top  log;  nevertheless,  the  material 
saved  in  the  butt  log  will  be  of  greater  value  from  the  standpoint 
of  both  quality  and  quantity,  because  of  the  larger  diameter  and 
the  freedom  from  knots. 


FIG.  1.    METHOD  OF  CUTTING  WINDFALLS. 

A  source  of  waste  in  stumps  has  frequently  been  observed  on 
windfalls.  The  fallers,  if  left  to  their  own  judgment,  will  almost 
invariably  make  the  first  cut  from  3  to  6  feet  above  the  base  of 
the  tree,  while  in  nearly  every  case  it  should  not  be  more  than  2 
feet  above  it,  as  shown  in  Figure  1. 

Table  5. — Amount   of  Timber  in  Stump  Sections  of  Various  Diameters 
and  Lengths,  Showing  the  Waste  in  High  Stumps. 


Diameter  of 

Excess  heights  on  stumps. 

cutting  point. 

2  inches 

4  inches 

6  inches 

8  inches 

Inches. 

Board  feet,  log  scale  (Doyle 

rule). 

16 

1.0 

2.0 

3.0 

4.0 

20 

2.6 

4.0 

6.0 

8.0 

24 

3.0 

6.6 

10.0 

13.0 

28 

5.0 

10.0 

15.0 

20.0 

32 

7.0 

14.0 

21.0 

28.0 

86 

9.0 

18.6 

28.0 

37.0 

40 

12.0 

24.0 

36.0 

48.0 

44 

15.0 

30.0 

45.0 

60.0 

48 

18.0 

37.0 

55.0 

73.0 

52 

22.0 

44.0 

66.0 

88.0 

Close  Utilization  of  Timber  25 

BREAKAGE  OF  BOLES  IN  FELLING 

The  loss  through  breakage  is  largely  due  to  the  carelessness 
of  the  individual  saw  crews  in  felling  trees  on  stumps  and  across 
down  timber.  A  further  loss  usually  occurs  in  cutting  broken 
timber  into  logs,  by  making  the  saw-cut  too  far  below  the  break. 
Where  the  break  is  not  square  across,  it  is  often  possible  to  obtain 
added  material  by  cutting  the  log  so  as  to  include  a  portion  of  the 
broken  end.  This  should  always  be  done  on  large  timber  where 
the  extra  section  that  can  be  secured  is  at  least  equal  to  one-half 
the  diameter  of  the  log.     (See  Plate  II,  Fig.  1.) 

CROOKED  TREES 

Crooked  trees  are  common  in  yellow  pine  forests  and  greater 
care  than  is  generally  the  rule  should  be  given  to  cutting  them 
into  logs. 

The  tree  should  be  divided  into  log  lengths  so  that  slight 
crooks  will  come  on  the  ends  of  logs.  If  the  sweep  is  pronounced, 
a  section  containing  it  should  be  cut  from  the  tree  and  left  in 
the  forest. 

Crooked  logs  are  not  only  more  difficult  than  straight  ones  to 
load  and  unload  from  cars,  but  they  require  several  times  longer 
to  get  them  onto  the  carriage  and  to  saw.  As  a  result  the  output 
is  often  reduced  from  20  to  75  per  cent,  thereby  materially 
increasing  the  cost  of  the  lumber  to  the  manufacturer  over  that 
from  straight  logs. 

The  loss  in  sawing  at  the  mill  due  to  crookedness  is  greater  on 
small  than  on  large  logs  because  a  higher  percentage  of  the  small 
log  is  wasted  in  squaring. 

FORKED  TREES 

Waste  which  usually  accompanies  the  cutting  of  logs  from 
forked  trees  is  due  largely  to  the  following  causes : 

(1)  Felling  so  that  one  fork  of  the  tree  is  bedded  in  the 
ground,  in  which  case  the  sawyers  follow  the  line  of  least  resist- 
ance and  leave  the  log  uncut.  (Plate  III,  Fig.  1.)  This  can  be 
avoided  in  most  instances  by  felling  the  timber  so  that  the  forks 
will  fall  flat. 

(2)  Cutting  too  far  below  the  crotch.  This  is  well  illustrated 
in  the  trees  shown  in  Plate  III,  Fig.  1,  where  the  cut  could  have 
been  made  seven  feet  nearer  the  crotch ;  in  Plate  III,  Fig.  2,  and 


v.-.-. 


26 


Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine 


Plate  IV,  Fig.  1,  four  feet  nearer.  The  sawyers  in  each  case  dis- 
regarded their  employer's  interests  and  made  the  cut  at  the  point 
where  the  least  labor  was  involved.  Although  cutting  at  the 
proper  point  would,  because  of  the  swelling,  have  required  more 
work,  the  value  of  the  extra  time  consumed  would  have  been  only 
a  small  part  of  the  worth  of  the  timber  saved. 

(3)  Cutting  too  far  above  the  crotch.  In  the  tree  shown  in 
Plate  III,  Fig.  1,  the  cut  should  have  been  made  three  feet  lower 
on  the  tree  and  in  Plate  IV,  Fig.  1,  two  feet  lower,  thereby  saving 
42  feet  log  scale  in  the  first  and  21  feet  in  the  second  case  without 
additional  expense  for  labor.  The  further  waste  of  an  18-foot 
log  fourteen  inches  in  diameter  (103  board  feet  log  scale),  shown 
in  Plate  III,  Fig.  1,  as  partly  bedded  in  the  ground,  can  be 
explained  as  due  to  insufficient  inspection.  The  stumpage  value 
of  the  waste  in  this  tree  alone,  at  $4.50  per  thousand  feet,  is 
$1.60. 


9'0- 


FIG  2.  FORKED  TREE  IMPROPERLY  CUT. 


The  waste  of  stumpage  was  not  the  only  loss,  since  close  obser- 
vation of  forked  logs  showed  that  in  all  cases  the  transportation 
and  handling  from  the  stump  through  the  mill  was  accompanied 
by  greater  labor  and  expense  than  straight  logs  of  the  same 
diameter.  An  extreme  case  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  2.  The  log  was 
12  feet  long  and  18  inches  in  diameter  at  one  end,  and  because 
of  its  form  was  exceedingly  difficult  to  handle.  The  yield  of 
sawed  lumber  was  not  determined,  but  was  estimated  to  be  only 
40  per  cent  of  the  full  content  of  a  straight  18-inch  log.  The 
following  time  was  consumed  in  handling:  from  mill  pond  to  mill 
deck,  12  minutes;  throwing  log  out  of  log  trough,  4  minutes; 
sawing,  13  minutes,  a  total  of  29  minutes. 

So  much  time  was  consumed  in  getting  this  log  onto  the  mill  deck 
that  the  band  mill  was  out  of  logs  for  five  minutes.  The  gang 
saw  also  ran  out  of  cants  and  was  idle  for  three  minutes  because 
of  the  stoppage  of  the  band  which  was  slabbing  logs  for  it. 

The  thirteen  minutes  required  for  sawing  was  six  times  greater 
than   the  average   for   a   straight   18-inch  log   12   feet,   and   the 


Close  Utilization  of  Timber 


27 


lumber  yield  was  60  per  cent  less,  so  that  it  would  require  fifteen 
times  longer  to  cut  a  given  amount  of  lumber  from  logs  of  this 
character  than  it  would  from  sound  straight  ones.  The  loss  in 
wages  of  the  mill  crew  alone  was  greatly  in  excess  of  the  value 
of  the  lumber  secured  from  this  particular  log. 

Although  this  is  an  extreme  case,  losses  occur  every  time  crooked 
or  forked  logs  are  handled.  The  cut  of  a  single  band  mill  may 
easily  be  reduced  from  25  to  50  logs  daily  when  many  crooked  and 
forked  ones  are  handled,  which  means  a  reduction  in  output  of 
from  3,000  to  6,000  board  feet. 


FIG  3.  FORKED  TREES  IMPROPERLY  PREPARED. 

Further  illustrations  of  logs  actually  observed  on  the  skidways, 
in  the  woods,  and  on  the  decks  of  sawmills  are  given  in  Fig  3. 
These  logs  are  not  only  difficult  to  handle,  but  in  "A"  one  end 
is  worthless  and  should  have  been  left  in  the  woods.  It  would 
have  been  far  easier  to  handle  log  "B"  had  the  lower  fork  been 
cut  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line. 

TRIMMING  LENGTH  OF  LOGS 


Out  of  1,000  logs  measured  on  the  skidways  of  a  yellow  pine 
operation,  only  426  had  the  right  trimming  length,  that  is,  from 
3  to  4  inches.  Of  the  remainder,  141  logs  had  a  trimming  length 
of  less  than  2  inches;  100  logs,  2  inches;  and  333  logs,  5  to  15 


28       Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine 

inches.  This  variation  was  due  either  to  carelessness  in  handling 
the  marking  stick  or  to  the  use  of  a  stick  of  incorrect  length.  The 
ends  of  marking  sticks  are  often  accidentally  cut  off,  and  unless 
a  new  stick  is  at  once  secured,  few  of  the  measurements  by  the 
crew  will  be  accurate. 

The  results  of  incorrect  trimming  lengths  are  readily  apparent 
in  watching  the  lumber  pass  over  the  trimmer  in  the  mill.  Boards 
that  have  a  trimming  length  less  than  2  inches  are  usually  reduced 
2  feet  in  length  because  the  setter  pulls  the  board  past  the  fixed 
saw  to  secure  a  trimming  edge  and  the  far  end  usually  falls  short 
and  is  cut  back  to  the  next  even  2  feet. 

The  total  of  the  superfluous  trimming  lengths  on  the  logs  in  a 
given  tree  when  taken  in  connection  with  the  merchantable  mate- 
rial left  in  the  top,  is  often  sufficient  to  yield  2  or  more  feet  of 
log  length  per  tree  over  that  actually  secured. 

SELECTION  OF  LOG  LENGTHS 

Every  tree  before  being  measured  should  be  carefully  examined 
and  as  far  as  possible  the  bole  so  divided  that  all  high  grade 
material  is  confined  to  certain  logs  and  all  low  grade  material 
to  others. 

Log-makers  do  not  pay  sufficient  attention  to  cutting  up  boles 
on  which  punk  knots  and  other  indications  of  rot  appear  on  the 
surface,  often  dividing  them  so  that  these  defects  come  in  the 
middle  of  logs  instead  of  on  the  end.  In  the  former  case,  if  the 
rot  has  not  extended  more  than  a  few  feet  in  either  direction  from 
the  defect,  the  log  will  have  sound  wood  on  both  ends,  which,  how- 
ever, is  of  little  value  because  a  high  percentage  of  the  board  will 
be  low  grade  or  rotten.  If  the  defect  is  on  the  end  of  the  log, 
the  unsound  portion  of  the  boards  can  be  cut  off  in  the  mill  and 
lumber  of  merchantable  quality  and  length  secured. 

It  should  also  be  the  rule  in  log-making  to  divide  the  bole  so 
as  to  separate  the  knotty  top  sections  from  the  clear  portions, 
so  that  the  latter  can  be  worked  up  to  the  best  advantage.  A 
12-foot  log  free  from  knots  is  of  more  value  than  a  16-foot  one 
that  has  numerous  large  knots,  and  there  are  instances  where 
it  is  more  profitable  to  leave  the  upper  part  of  the  tree  in  the 
woods  if  the  logs  thus  secured  yield  a  high  percentage  of  the 
better  grades. 

Camp  foremen  frequently  are  not  thoroughly  familiar  with  the 
grades  of  lumber  that  logs  with  given  classes  of  visible  defects 
will  produce,  consequently  their  rules  for  the  guidance  of  fallers 
in  determining  the  extent  to  which  unsound  and  knotty  logs  shall 


Close  Utilization  of  Timber  29 

be  utilized,  are  often  very  indefinite.  As  a  result  fallers  cut  trees 
that  are  too  poor  to  be  brought  out  at  a  profit,  and  on  the  other 
hand,  leave  logs  that  should  be  utilized. 

WASTE  IN  THE  TOP 

A  common  form  of  waste  is  shown  in  Fig.  4.  Fallers  in  measur- 
ing up  the  bole  of  the  tree  reach  a  point  where  there  may  be  one 
to  several  large  limbs  on  one  side,  as  "A"  and  "B,"  and  they 
make  their  cut  at  "X,"  eliminating  the  rough  portion  of  the 
bole.  If  the  other  side  of  the  bole  is  free  from  limbs,  as  is  often 
the  case,  the  cutting  point  should  have  been  extended  2  or  4  feet 
further,  say  to  "Y,"  if  that  affords  the  proper  log  length.  The 
object  is  to  secure  the  added  2  or  4  feet  of  clear  length  on  the 
lower  half  of  the  section,  material  that  otherwise  is  wasted.  If 
necessary,  the  large  knots  on  the  lumber  secured  from  the  upper 
half  may  be  cut  off  on  the  trimmer.  The  clear  half  of  the  section 
will  not  lower  the  quality  of  the  lumber  secured,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  may  slightly  increase  the  percentage  of  the  better  grades 
and,  in  addition,  the  lumberman  benefits  by  the  greater  amount 
of  material  secured.  The  added  cost  of  handling  the  log  in  the 
woods  and  mill  because  of  the  extra  2  or  4  feet  will  be  very  small 
in  comparison  to  the  value  secured. 


FIG.  4.     METHOD  OF  CUTTING  ROUGH  TOPS. 

Sections  of  merchantable  timber  partly  or  wholly  free  from 
knots,  and  from  1  to  12  feet  long,  are  often  left  in  the  tops,  due 
to  inadequate  supervision.  (See  Plate  IV,  Fig.  2,  and  Plate  V, 
Fig.  1.)  In  order  to  determine  the  waste  from  this  cause,  a 
detailed  study  was  made  on  19.5  acres  of  logged  lands  belonging 
to  a  careful  operator.  This  showed  that  3.51  per  cent  of  the 
total  merchantable  stand  on  the  area  had  been  left  in  the  tops. 
The  data  were  secured  by  measuring  every  felled  tree  on  the  area, 
great  care  being  taken  to  scale  only  such  part  of  each  top  as 
was  considered  merchantable  by  the  owner.  No  length  less  than  2 
feet  was  measured  and  the  minimum  diameter  taken  was  8  inches.  In 
many  cases  where  the  length  left  in  the  top  was  in  odd  feet  it  would 


30 


Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine 


have  been  possible  to  have  utilized  completely  the  entire  merchant- 
able part  of  the  bole  had  the  log  lengths  been  carefully  marked 
off.  The  table  gives  a  very  conservative  estimate  of  the  waste 
in  felling  and  log-making  because  it  does  not  cover  loss  from  high 
stumps,  excessive  trimming  lengths,  or  of  logs  so  cut  that  the 
best  quality  of  material  was  not  secured. 

The  yearly  waste  in  tops  on  this  operation,  based  on  the  annual 
cut  for  1911,1  was  1,937,795  feet  b.m.  (Doyle  rule),  and  adding 
25  per  cent  increase  for  overrun  at  the  mill,  it  shows  a  loss  of 
2,422,243  feet  b.m.  Assuming  stumpage  is  worth  $4.50  per  1,000 
feet  b.m.,  the  annual  loss  is  $8,770.  The  profit  secured  from  the 
sale  of  the  sawn  material,  say  $3  per  thousand  feet,  should  be 
included  with  this,  which  brings  the  total  to  $14,533. 2 

A  gain  of  one  year's  cut  (based  on  the  cut  of  1911)  could  be 
secured  every  22.7  years,  if  the  total  merchantable  timber  on  the 
lands  were  utilized.  On  the  basis  of  a  20-year  cut,  the  life  of  the 
operation  would  be  prolonged  10.5  months. 

Table  6. — Measurements  on  Cut-over  Lands  in  Ashley  County, 
Arkansas,  Showing  the  Lack  of  Close  Utilization. 

(Doyle  Rule) 


Area  in 
acres. 


2.295 
1.147 
2.295 
2.295 
2.295 
8.895 
2.295 
2.295 


No.  of  trees 

cut. 


Log  scale 

utilized. 

bd.  ft. 


1.3,046 
12,455 
26,4;% 
28,660 
28,005 
20,778 
27,920 
38,350 
19,750 


Log  scale 

left  in  tops. 

bd.  ft. 


1,025 
1,120 


1,527 
816 


Total  merch. 

contents. 

bd.  ft. 


14,071 
13,575 
27,636 

29,640 


Per  cent  of  merchantable  timber  wasted  in  tops  equals  3.51. 


The  price  of  lumber  20  years  hence  will  be  far  greater  than  it 
is  to-day  and  the  character  of  material  that  can  be  utilized  will 
undergo  a  change ;  therefore,  every  year  the  operation  can  be 
extended  will  mean  increased  profits  per  thousand  board  feet  of 
lumber  manufactured. 

Closer  utilization  will  not  mean  an  increase  in  the  percentage 
of  lower  grades,  but  on  the  contrary  the  tendency  should  be  the 

1.    The  data  was  secured  in  1912. 

i.  The  loss  is  in  reality  greater  than  this  because  the  added  expense  of  skidding,  loading, 
hauling  and  sawing  logs  with  an  added  2  or  4  feet  length  is  only  slightly  in  excess  of  the  cost 
of  handling  the  shorter  logs,  and  the  operator  really  secures  this  added  timber  at  a  very  slight 
additional  cost. 


Close  Utilization  of  Timber  31 

reverse,  because  timber  left  in  the  tops  is  of  as  high  grade  as 
much  of  the  material  now  taken ;  and  the  cutting  of  a  tree  for 
quality  as  well  as  quantity  will  increase  the  percentage  of 
"uppers." 

SUGGESTIONS 

The  successful  solution  of  this  problem  can  only  be  brought 
about  by  thorough  inspection  of  felling  and  log-making.  Where 
ten  or  more  saw  crews  are  employed,  the  proper  supervision  of 
this  work  will  require  the  services  of  a  saw  boss,  who  should  be 
responsible  to  the  team  boss  in  order  that  close  cooperation  may 
exist  between  felling  and  skidding  crews. 

A  man  to  be  a  competent  saw  boss  must  understand  thoroughly 
the  mill  requirements  for  logs,  in  order  that  the  timber  may  be 
cut  into  the  most  desirable  and  profitable  lengths ;  should  be  an 
expert  log  scaler ;  and  must  have  the  ability  to  teach  and  handle 
men  successfully. 

DUTIES  OF  THE  SAW  BOSS 

(1)  The  distribution  and  care  of  all  tools  issued  to  fallers 
and  log-makers.  Economy  is  effected  by  a  system  of  accounting 
for  tools  and  other  equipment.  Special  attention  should  be  given 
to  checking  up  the  length  of  measuring  sticks  each  day. 

(2)  Culling  all  trees  and  logs  that  are  not  worth  handling. 

(3)  The  instruction  of  the  workmen  in  marking  off  log  lengths 
on  felled  trees  in  order  to  enable  them  to  secure  the  maximum 
quality  and  quantity  of  timber. 

(4)  The  thorough  inspection  of  the  work  of  the  felling  and 
log-making  crews  to  point  out  mistakes  for  the  purpose  of  avoid- 
ing them  in  the  future. 

(5)  The  scaling  of  all  timber  that  is  felled. 

Difficulties  will  be  experienced  at  the  start,  but  instruction  by  a 
saw  boss  for  three  or  four  weeks  will  result  in  a  marked  improve- 
ment in  the  work.  Careful  supervision,  however,  will  be  required 
constantly,  for  it  is  easy  for  workmen  to  fall  back  into  old  habits. 

The  saw  boss  should,  after  a  few  weeks,  have  sufficient  time  to 
scale  the  timber  at  the  stump,  since  his  inspection  duties  will 
require  him  to  visit  every  felled  tree.  The  wages  of  a  scaler  can 
thereby  be  saved. 

The  salary  of  a  competent  saw  boss  should  be  at  least  $100  per 
month,  because  a  man  without  proper  conception  of  the  work  would 
be  of  little  value. 


32       Prolonging  the  Cut  of  Southern  Pine 

The  successful  inauguration  of  a  scheme  of  this  sort  should 
involve  some  reward  for  the  laborer  who  does  his  work  well,  inas- 
much as  he  is  called  upon  to  exercise  greater  care  and  intelligence, 
and  the  additional  profits  accruing  to  the  lumber  company  should, 
in  part,  be  shared  with  him.  This  reward  might  assume  the  form 
of  a  bonus  of  a  few  cents  per  thousand  feet  of  timber  cut,  or  a 
slight  increase  in  the  daily  wage. 


Bui.  2,  Yale  Forest  School 


FIG.  1— TOP  BKOKKN  FROM  FALLING  ON  A  STUMP 


FIG.  8— VERY  CROOKED  LOG  READY  FOR  LOADING 


Bui.  2,  Yale  Forest  School 


?*§£ 
v^i 


FIG.  I— EXAMPLE  OF  VERY  WASTEFUL  CUTTING  OF  A  FORKED  TREE 


FIG.  8— UNNECESSARY  WASTE  IN  LOO  MAKING 


I.  2,  Yale  Forest  School 


?IG.  I— SECTION  BELOW  THE  TOP  SHOWN  IN  PLATE  V 


S£"^£2*  4«?WBfc?fc&3k^ 


FIG.  2-WASTE  IN  A  TOP 


